APPENDIX

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
	Observations	Mean	Standard Deviation	Minimum	Maximum	
Forced Refugee Flow	4053	4948.542	48908.6	0	1807111	
Religious Regulation	3228	8.315985	10.553	0	56	
Minority Discrimination	3229	10.30071	13.28721	0	71	
Religious Restrictions	3056	1.786322	1.383734	0	5	
GDP 	3980	10152.36	12451.12	82.65764	88780.62	
Population Size	4436	3.18e+07	1.22e+08	9004	1.35e+09	
Political Terror	3834	2.488915	1.133161	1	5	
Regime Type	3526	2.068917	1.603918	0	1	
Conflict Intensity	4439	0.1937373	0.4913368	0	2	
Religious Fractionalization	4301	0.4345171	0.2331455	0.0023	0.8705	
Distinct Minority	4473	0.0304047	0.4596718	0	1	
Minority Size	4473	-15.38427	35.98967	0	0.9	

EXPLANATORY VARIABLE INFORMATION
Religion and State (RAS) variables

We use three variables from the Religion and State dataset in the analysis. The data is available at www.religionandstate.org, and discussed in Fox 2008; 2011.
The first variable from the Religion and State dataset is NX, which we label as Religious Regulations. This is a composite variable containing numerous other variables measuring specific aspects of religious regulation by the government, on a four-level scale; it runs from 0 to 87. The values for each variable, and the name of each variable included in NX are below.

0.	No restrictions.	
1.	Slight restrictions including practical restrictions or the government engages in this activity rarely and on a small scale.	
2.	Significant restrictions including practical restrictions or the government engages in this activity occasionally and on a moderate scale.	
3.	The activity is illegal or the government engages in this activity often and on a large scale.

Component Variables of NX

n01x:	Restrictions on religious political parties.	
n02x:	Restrictions on trade associations or other civil associations being affiliated with a religion.	
n03x:	Restrictions on clergy holding political office.	
n04x:	Arrest, continued detention, or severe official harassment of religious figures, officials, and/or members of religious parties.	
n05x:	The government restricts or harasses members and organizations affiliated with the majority religion but who operate outside of the state sponsored or recognized ecclesiastical framework.	
n06x:	Restrictions on formal religious organizations other than political parties.	
n07x:	Restrictions on the public observance of religious practices, including religious holidays and the Sabbath.	
n08x:	Restrictions on religious activities outside of recognized religious facilities.	
n09x:	Restrictions on public religious speech.	
n10x:	Restrictions or monitoring of sermons by clergy.	
n11x:	Restrictions on clergy and/or religious organizations engaging in public political speech (other than sermons) or propaganda or on political activity in or by religious institutions.	
n12x:	Restrictions on religious-based hate speech.	
n13x:	Restrictions on access to places of worship.	
n14x:	Restrictions on the publication or dissemination of written religious material.	
n15x:	People are arrested for religious activities.	
n16x:	Restrictions on religious public gatherings that are not placed on other types of public gathering.	
n17x:	Restrictions on the public display by private persons or organizations of religious symbols, including (but not limited to) religious dress, the presence or absence of facial hair, nativity scenes, and icons.	
n18x:	Restrictions on or regulation of religious education in public schools. (This variable represents direct government control of teachers and or curriculum not a ban on religious education in public schools).	
n19x:	Restrictions on or regulation of religious education outside of public schools or general government control of religious education.	
n20x:	Restrictions on or regulation of religious education at the university level.	
n21x:	Foreign religious organizations are required to have a local sponsor or affiliation.	
n22x:	Heads of religious organizations (e.g., Bishops) must be citizens of the state.	
n23x:	All practicing clergy must be citizens of the state. 	
n24x:	The government appoints or must approve clerical appointments or somehow takes part in the appointment process.	
n25x:	Other than appointments, the government legislates or otherwise officially influences the internal workings or organization of religious institutions and organizations.	
n26x:	Laws governing the state religion are passed by the government or need the government’s approval before being put into effect.	
n27x:	State ownership of some religious property or buildings. 	
n28x:	Conscientious objectors to military service are not given other options for national service and are prosecuted.	
n29x:	Other religious restrictions.	

The second variable is MX, which we label as Minority Religion Discrimination. This is a composite variable containing numerous other variables measuring specific aspects of religious discrimination, on a four-level scale; it runs from 0 to 90. The values for each variable, and the name of each variable included in MX are below:

0.	Not significantly restricted for any.	
1.	The activity is slightly restricted for some minorities.	
2.	The activity is slightly restricted for most or all minorities or sharply restricted for some of them.	
3.	The activity is prohibited or sharply restricted for most or all minorities.	

Component Variables of MX

m01x:	Restrictions on public observance of religious services, festivals and/or holidays, including the Sabbath.	
m02x:	Restrictions on the private observance of religious services, festivals and/or holidays, including the Sabbath.	
m03x:	Restrictions on building, leasing, repairing and/or maintaining places of worship.	
m04x:	Restrictions on access to existing places of worship.	
m05x:	Forced observance of religious laws of another group.	
m06x:	Restrictions on formal religious organizations.	
m07x:	Restrictions on the running of religious schools and/or religious education in general.	
m08x:	Restrictions on the ability to make and/or obtain materials necessary for religious rites, customs, and/or ceremonies.	
m09x:	Mandatory education in the majority religion.	
m10x:	Arrest, continued detention, or severe official harassment of religious figures, officials, and/or members of religious parties for activities other than proselytizing.	
m11x:	State surveillance of minority religious activities not placed on the activities of the majority.	
m12x:	Restrictions on the ability to write, publish, or disseminate religious publications.	
m13x:	Restrictions on the ability to import religious publications.	
m14x:	Restrictions on access to religious publications for personal use.	
m15x:	Restrictions on the observance religious laws concerning personal status, including marriage, divorce, and burial.	
m16x:	Restrictions on the wearing of religious symbols or clothing. This includes presence or absence of facial hair.	
m17x:	Restrictions on the ordination of and/or access to clergy.	
m18x:	Restrictions on conversion to minority religions.	
m19x:	Forced renunciation of faith by recent converts to minority religions.	
m20x:	Forced conversions of people who were never members of the majority religion.	
m21x:	Efforts or campaigns to convert members of minority religions to the majority religion which fall short of using force.	
m22x:	Restrictions on proselytizing by permanent residents of state to members of the majority religion.	
m23x:	Restrictions on proselytizing by permanent residents of state to members of minority religions.	
m24x:	Restrictions on proselytizing by foreign clergy or missionaries. (This includes denial of visas if this denial is specifically aimed at missionaries but not if it is the same type of denial that would be applied to any foreigner.)	
m25x:	Requirement for minority religions (as opposed to all religions) to register in order to be legal or receive special tax status. 	
m26x:	Custody of children granted to members of majority group solely or in part on the basis of religious affiliation or beliefs.	
m27x:	Restricted access of minority clergy to hospitals, jails, military bases, and other places a chaplain may be needed in comparison to chaplains of the majority religion.	
m28x:	There is a legal provision or policy of declaring some minority religions dangerous or extremist sects.	
m29x:	Anti-religious propaganda in official or semi-official government publications.	
m30x:	Restrictions on other types of observance of religious law.	

The third variable is SCX, which we label as Religious Bans. This variable measures the “extent to which, in practice, a state is willing to restrict some or all religions.” It is a six-level variable; the values are below.

0.	No (other) religions are illegal and there are no significant restrictions on minority religions.	
1.	No religions are illegal and no limitations are places on them but some religions have benefits not given to others due to some form of official recognition or status not given to all religions.	
2.	No religions are illegal but some or all (other) religions have practical limitations placed upon them.	
3.	No religions are illegal but some or all (other) religions have legal limitations placed upon them.	
4.	Some (other) religions or atheism are illegal.	
5.	All (other) religions are illegal.	

GRI
We also use data from the Pew Research Center that measures government restrictions on religion as an alternate measure. The Government Restrictions Index (GRI) is a ten point index of the extent of government restrictions religion around the world produced by the Pew Research Center; it covers the years 2007 through 2010 (Pew 2013). The data is based on earlier work by Grim and Finke (2011). 
It is made up of 20 variables measuring provisions for an official religion, restrictive policies, harassment of and violence towards religious communities, and government favoritism towards religious communities (see below table for information on each variable in GRI).
Yet, there are potential issues with using the GRI in a study of refugee flight. As Vreeland (2008) and Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland (2010) have discussed, using an index as an independent variable in a model with a dependent variable containing similar measures as components of the index can be methodologically problematic. For example, following their studies, the use of Polity scores for regime type to assess civil war likelihood is flawed as Polity includes measures of political violence in its measure of regime type.
This is relevant to this manuscript as GRI includes a question that measures the extent of religion-related displacement by the government. This variable, GRI.Q.19, includes counts of religion-related abuses, killings, detentions, displacement and property damage by the government. Including it as a component of GRI with Refugees as a dependent variable may thus lead to inaccurate estimates. Completely removing the variable, however, would lead to a significant loss of information as government violence against religious groups is an important aspect of government restrictions on religion.
We therefore only use the GRI variable as additional data. We take the sum of all 20 GRI variables and divide this by 2, to create an index that runs from 0 to 10.

Variables Included in GRI

GRI.Q.1:	Does the Constitution, or law that functions in the place of a constitution specifically provide for “freedom of religion” or include language used in Article 18 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights?	
GRI.Q.2:	Does the constitution or basic law include stipulations that appear to qualify or substantially contradict the concept of "religious freedom"	
GRI.Q.3:	Taken together, how do the constitution/basic law and other national laws and policies affect religious freedom?	
GRI.Q.4:	Does any level of government interfere with worship or other religious practices?	
GRI.Q.5:	Is public preaching by religious groups limited by any level of government?	
GRI.Q.6:	Is proselytizing limited by any level of government?	
GRI.Q.7:	Is converting from one religion to another limited by any level of government?	
GRI.Q.8:	Is religious literature or broadcasting limited by any level of government?	
GRI.Q.9:	Are foreign missionaries allowed to operate?	
GRI.Q.10:	Is the wearing of religious symbols, such as head coverings for women and facial hear for men, regulated by law or by any level of government?	
		
GRI.Q.11:	Was there harassment or intimidation of religious groups by any level of government?	
GRI.Q.12:	Did the national government display hostility involving physical violence toward minority or non-approved religious groups?	
GRI.Q.13:	Were there instances when the national government did not intervene in cases of discrimination or abuses against religious groups?	
GRI.Q.14:	Does the national government have an established organization to regulate or manage religious affairs?	
GRI.Q.15:	Did the national government denounce one or more religious groups by characterizing them as dangerous "cults" or "sects?"	
GRI.Q.16:	Does any level of government formally ban any religious group?	
GRI.Q.17	Were there instances when the national government attempted to eliminate an entire religious group's presence in the country?	
GRI.Q.18:	Does any level of government ask religious groups to register for any reason, including to be eligible for benefits such as tax exemption?	
GRI.Q.19:	Did any level of government use force toward religious groups that resulted in individuals being killed, physically abused, imprisoned, detained or displaced from their homes, or having their personal or religious properties damaged or destroyed?	
GRI.Q.20:	Do some religious groups receive government support or favors, such as funding, official recognition, or special access?	

TEST FOR MULTI-COLLINEARITY

Table 2. Test for Multi-collinearity
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	
Variable	VIF	R2	VIF	R2	VIF	R2	
Religious Regulations	1.36	0.7332					
Minority Religion Discrimination			1.44	0.6921			
Religious Bans					1.20	0.8327	
Logged GDP	1.43	0.6988	1.51	0.6623	1.42	0.7032	
Logged Population	1.50	0.6660	1.46	0.6860	1.42	0.7055	
Conflict Intensity	1.60	0.6257	1.58	0.6319	1.59	0.6272	
Political Terror	2.53	0.3947	2.52	0.3963	2.55	0.3920	
Regime	1.43	0.7009	1.49	0.6693	1.37	0.7312	
Religious Fractionalization	1.12	0.8935	1.15	0.8697	1.11	0.9014	
Distinct Minority	1.26	0.7937	1.29	0.7765	1.28	0.7812	
Minority Size	1.06	0.9457	1.06	0.9463	1.06	0.9432	

Tests for multi-collinearity indicated that a very low level of multi-collinearity was present for the main independent variables (VIF = 1.20 for religious bans, 1.44 for discrimination of religious minorities, and 1.36 for religious regulations). The level of multi-collinearity for conflict intensity and PTS are moderate (VIF = 1.58–1.60 for conflict intensity, and 2.52–2.55 for political terror), but the regression equations (R2) for both show that they explain in the majority of cases the most variance. 

Testing for Outliers

Testing for potential outliers that may drive the results, we constructed a moving average of forced migrant numbers between 150,000 and the maximum of 5,224,405. We found that the five countries with the, by far, highest counts were Columbia, Rwanda, Sudan, Iraq, and Afghanistan. To test whether our results still hold up, we excluded these cases and reran our main model. As shown in Table 18, in this appendix, this was the case.

Robustness Checks

Table 3. Robustness Check Using GEE as Alternative Modeling Strategy
	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations 	0.00			
	(0.02)			
Minority Religion 		0.03**		
Discrimination		(0.01)		
Religious Bans			0.26**	
			(0.11)	
GDP (logged)	-0.87***	-0.86***	-0.80***	
	(0.15)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Population (logged)	0.32***	0.32***	0.32***	
	(0.10)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Conflict Intensity	0.91***	0.91***	0.81***	
	(0.28)	(0.28)	(0.27)	
Political Terror Scale	0.61***	0.66***	0.69***	
	(0.17)	(0.18)	(0.18)	
Regime	-0.07	-0.11	-0.13	
	(0.11)	(0.10)	(0.09)	
Religious 	-0.00	0.29	0.19	
Fractionalization	(0.58)	(0.65)	(0.58)	
Distinct Minority	0.93**	0.81**	0.88**	
	(0.42)	(0.38)	(0.35)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01**	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	7.28***	6.75***	6.11***	
	(2.02)	(1.91)	(1.78)	
				
N over time	2,819	2,820	2,659	
N cross-nationally	163	163	163	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 4. Robustness Check Using a Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial Regression as Alternative Modeling Strategy

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
	
NBRM:
Forced Migration	Inflation Equation:
Forced Migration (1,0)	
NBRM:
Forced Migration	Inflation Equation:
Forced Migration (1,0)	
NBRM:
Forced Migration	Inflation Equation:
Forced Migration (1,0)	
Religious	0.01						
Regulations	(0.01)						
Minority Religion			0.04***				
Discrimination			(0.01)				
Religious Bans					0.28***		
					(0.06)		
GDP (logged)	-0.82***		-0.84***		-0.77***		
	(0.07)		(0.07)		(0.07)		
Population (logged)	0.23***	-16.91	0.26***	-13.76	0.25***	-5.26	
	(0.06)	(19.17)	(0.06)	(13.29)	(0.06)	(6.40)	
Conflict Intensity	1.02***	137.68	1.04***	112.45	0.94***	43.09	
	(0.18)	(1,522.81)	(0.18)	(634.85)	(0.18)	(56.28)	
Political Terror Scale	0.72***	-61.30	0.75***	-49.37	0.78***	-19.13	
	(0.09)	(1,013.81)	(0.09)	(420.16)	(0.09)	(26.55)	
Regime	-0.14***	-23.98	-0.19***	-45.88	-0.19***	-22.04	
	(0.06)	(1,698.60)	(0.06)	(685.76)	(0.06)	(410.28)	
Religious 	-0.05		0.27		0.08		
Fractionalization	(0.36)		(0.37)		(0.38)		
Distinct Minority	1.02***	-93.34	0.86***	-135.59	0.98***	-70.58	
	(0.16)	(45,886.23)	(0.16)	(53,052.11)	(0.16)	(588,168.09)	
Minority Size	0.01***	0.67	0.01***		0.01***		
	(0.00)	(248.65)	(0.00)		(0.00)		
Constant	7.96***		7.22***		6.74***		
	(1.06)		(1.08)		(1.13)		
							
α		2.50***		2.48***		2.48***	
N	2,819	2,819	2,820	2,820	2,659	2,659	
NBRM: Negative Binomial Regression Model. Standard errors in parentheses ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 5. Robustness Check Using Alternative DV Measure: Logged Refugee Stock

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
				
Religious Regulations	0.04**			
	(0.02)			
Minority Religion 		0.03*		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.11	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.60***	-0.64***	-0.59***	
	(0.14)	(0.15)	(0.15)	
Population (logged)	0.13	0.14	0.17	
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Conflict Intensity	0.61**	0.55**	0.54**	
	(0.26)	(0.26)	(0.26)	
Political Terror Scale	1.38***	1.39***	1.40***	
	(0.20)	(0.19)	(0.20)	
Regime	0.02	-0.00	0.07	
	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	
Religious Fractionalization	-0.11	-0.00	-0.34	
	(0.67)	(0.65)	(0.66)	
Distinct Minority	1.18***	1.12***	1.23***	
	(0.38)	(0.39)	(0.40)	
Minority Size	-0.00**	-0.00**	-0.01***	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	4.92**	5.05**	4.15**	
	(2.07)	(2.23)	(2.08)	
				
N	2,951	2,952	2,791	
R2	0.50	0.50	0.49	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, p < 0.1.

Table 6. Robustness Check Controlling for Effect of Being a Non-Western State

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04***		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.32**	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.82***	-0.84***	-0.77***	
	(0.16)	(0.15)	(0.15)	
Population (logged)	0.20	0.22*	0.22*	
	(0.15)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Conflict Intensity	-0.06	0.27	0.08	
	(0.75)	(0.77)	(0.77)	
Political Terror Scale	1.00***	1.03***	0.91***	
	(0.27)	(0.27)	(0.25)	
Regime	0.76***	0.82***	0.85***	
	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Religious 	-0.13	-0.18*	-0.18*	
Fractionalization	(0.11)	(0.10)	(0.10)	
Distinct Minority	1.05***	0.91***	1.03***	
	(0.33)	(0.30)	(0.30)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01*	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Non-West	-0.37	-0.56	-0.61	
	(0.83)	(0.81)	(0.84)	
Constant	8.56***	8.15***	7.55***	
	(2.83)	(2.58)	(2.68)	
				
α	2.51***	2.50***	2.49***	
N	2,819	2,820	2,659	

Robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 7. Robustness Check Controlling for Time Period Effects

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.28**	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.89***	-0.91***	-0.86***	
	(0.17)	(0.16)	(0.16)	
Population (logged)	0.24	0.28*	0.27*	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Conflict Intensity	0.96***	0.99***	0.88***	
	(0.27)	(0.26)	(0.25)	
Political Terror Scale	0.71***	0.75***	0.78***	
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	
Regime	-0.16	-0.20*	-0.20*	
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Religious 	-0.12	0.20	-0.01	
Fractionalization	(0.77)	(0.80)	(0.79)	
Distinct Minority	1.09***	0.94***	1.07***	
	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.33)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01**	0.01***	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Nineties	-0.31	-0.31	-0.37	
	(0.26)	(0.27)	(0.27)	
Constant	8.68***	7.80***	7.45***	
	(2.44)	(2.14)	(2.27)	
				
α	2.51***	2.50***	2.49***	
N	2,819	2,820	2,659	
Robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 8. Robustness Check Controlling for Significance of Religion (WVS Item)

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.03*			
	(0.02)			
Minority Religion 		0.03*		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.34	
			(0.22)	
GDP (logged)	-0.72**	-0.89***	-0.75***	
	(0.33)	(0.27)	(0.29)	
Population (logged)	-0.23	-0.16	-0.12	
	(0.19)	(0.17)	(0.16)	
Conflict Intensity	1.51**	1.63***	1.42***	
	(0.59)	(0.54)	(0.53)	
Political Terror Scale	0.41	0.36	0.33	
	(0.29)	(0.29)	(0.31)	
Regime	0.16	0.05	0.04	
	(0.27)	(0.26)	(0.25)	
Religious 	-1.89*	-1.65	-1.67	
Fractionalization	(0.99)	(1.00)	(1.06)	
Distinct Minority	0.98*	0.76	0.96*	
	(0.53)	(0.53)	(0.55)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01**	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Importance of 	0.13	0.32	0.31	
Religion	(0.36)	(0.36)	(0.36)	
Constant	15.72***	15.99***	13.80***	
	(2.13)	(2.21)	(2.22)	
α	2.48***	2.48***	2.45***	
N	676	676	626	
Robust standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 9. Robustness Check Controlling for Ethnic Fractionalization 

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.30**	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.82***	-0.85***	-0.77***	
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.14)	
Population (logged)	0.22	0.26*	0.25*	
	(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Conflict Intensity	0.99***	1.00***	0.91***	
	(0.26)	(0.26)	(0.25)	
Political Terror Scale	0.75***	0.78***	0.82***	
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.14)	
Regime	-0.08	-0.15	-0.12	
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Ethnic	-0.84	-0.39	-1.00	
Fractionalization	(0.86)	(0.84)	(0.79)	
Religious 	-0.09	0.19	0.06	
Fractionalization	(0.73)	(0.77)	(0.76)	
Distinct Minority	1.02***	0.86***	0.95***	
	(0.33)	(0.31)	(0.31)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01**	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	8.34***	7.33***	6.99***	
	(2.45)	(2.28)	(2.32)	
				
α	2.51***	2.50***	2.49***	
N	2,794	2,795	2,636	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 10. Robustness Check Controlling for Language Fractionalization

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.02)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.01)		
Religious Bans			0.33***	
			(0.12)	
GDP (logged)	-0.92***	-0.97***	-0.89***	
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.14)	
Population (logged)	0.20	0.23*	0.23*	
	(0.14)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Conflict Intensity	1.02***	1.03***	0.89***	
	(0.28)	(0.28)	(0.26)	
Political Terror Scale	0.70***	0.72***	0.76***	
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.15)	
Regime	-0.08	-0.14	-0.12	
	(0.10)	(0.10)	(0.09)	
Language	-1.37*	-1.28*	-1.61**	
Fractionalization	(0.75)	(0.75)	(0.68)	
Religious 	0.29	0.64	0.56	
Fractionalization	(0.71)	(0.73)	(0.72)	
Distinct Minority	1.12***	0.94***	1.03***	
	(0.34)	(0.33)	(0.31)	
Minority Size	0.00*	0.01*	0.00*	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	9.47***	9.12***	8.26***	
	(2.37)	(2.26)	(2.28)	
				
α	2.49***	2.48***	2.48***	
N	2,747	2,748	2,591	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 11. Robustness Check Controlling for Magnitude of Genocide Events 

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.29**	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.82***	-0.84***	-0.77***	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Population (logged)	0.25*	0.28**	0.28**	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Conflict Intensity	0.99***	1.02***	0.90***	
	(0.26)	(0.26)	(0.24)	
Political Terror Scale	0.73***	0.76***	0.79***	
	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.16)	
Regime	-0.13	-0.18*	-0.17	
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Religious 	-0.12	0.20	0.00	
Fractionalization	(0.76)	(0.79)	(0.80)	
Distinct Minority	1.06***	0.91***	1.02***	
	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.31)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01**	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Magnitude of Genocide	-0.44***	-0.48***	-0.52***	
	(0.15)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Constant	7.60***	6.84***	6.20***	
	(2.37)	(2.09)	(2.23)	
				
α	2.51***	2.50***	2.49***	
N	2,819	2,820	2,659	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 12. Robustness Check Controlling for Poverty Gap 

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.02			
	(0.02)			
Minority Religion 		0.02		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.27**	
			(0.12)	
GDP (logged)	-0.92***	-0.89***	-0.89***	
	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.33)	
Population (logged)	0.29*	0.36***	0.51***	
	(0.18)	(0.14)	(0.13)	
Conflict Intensity	1.69***	1.68***	2.27***	
	(0.46)	(0.47)	(0.48)	
Political Terror Scale	0.91***	0.87***	0.55**	
	(0.27)	(0.26)	(0.24)	
Regime	-0.39***	-0.37***	-0.49***	
	(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Religious 	0.41	0.50	0.28	
Fractionalization	(0.95)	(0.96)	(0.96)	
Distinct Minority	0.19	0.23	0.60	
	(0.39)	(0.43)	(0.39)	
Minority Size	0.00	0.00	0.00	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Poverty Gap	-0.04**	-0.04**	-0.04**	
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	
Constant	8.10*	6.65*	4.81	
	(4.21)	(3.78)	(3.77)	
				
α	2.44***	2.44***	2.39***	
N	627	627	583	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 13. Robustness Check Controlling for Income Distribution

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.01		
Discrimination		(0.01)		
Religious Bans			0.18	
			(0.11)	
GDP (logged)	-0.25	-0.28	-0.21	
	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.18)	
Population (logged)	0.20	0.25*	0.36***	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.13)	
Conflict Intensity	2.02***	2.01***	2.42***	
	(0.57)	(0.57)	(0.53)	
Political Terror Scale	1.17***	1.14***	0.92***	
	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.19)	
Regime	-0.25*	-0.25*	-0.39***	
	(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.13)	
Religious 	0.53	0.56	0.20	
Fractionalization	(0.88)	(0.90)	(0.87)	
Distinct Minority	0.29	0.28	0.72*	
	(0.40)	(0.41)	(0.37)	
Minority Size	0.01	0.00	0.00	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Gini Score	-0.07***	-0.07***	-0.07***	
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	
Constant	5.47**	4.88*	3.09	
	(2.78)	(2.73)	(2.64)	
				
α	2.41***	2.41***	2.36***	
N	652	652	606	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

	

Table 14. Robustness Check Controlling Population Growth

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.02			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04***		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.26**	
			(0.12)	
GDP (logged)	-0.61***	-0.69***	-0.59***	
	(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.13)	
Population (logged)	0.21	0.25*	0.26**	
	(0.14)	(0.13)	(0.13)	
Conflict Intensity	0.89***	0.92***	0.79***	
	(0.27)	(0.27)	(0.26)	
Political Terror Scale	0.81***	0.83***	0.86***	
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	
Regime	0.16	0.09	0.11	
	(0.12)	(0.12)	(0.12)	
Religious 	-0.53	-0.20	-0.35	
Fractionalization	(0.70)	(0.73)	(0.76)	
Distinct Minority	0.63**	0.51*	0.64**	
	(0.30)	(0.27)	(0.29)	
Minority Size	0.00*	0.00	0.00*	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Population Growth	-0.25***	-0.25***	-0.24***	
	(0.06)	(0.06)	(0.06)	
Constant	6.28***	5.87***	4.85**	
	(2.15)	(2.08)	(2.11)	
				
α	2.48***	2.47***	2.47***	
N	2,817	2,818	2,657	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 15. Robustness Check Controlling Urban Population

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.27**	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.94***	-0.88***	-0.83***	
	(0.23)	(0.20)	(0.22)	
Population (logged)	0.22	0.27*	0.26*	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Conflict Intensity	0.97***	1.00***	0.89***	
	(0.26)	(0.26)	(0.25)	
Political Terror Scale	0.72***	0.76***	0.78***	
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.16)	
Regime	-0.13	-0.17	-0.17	
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Religious 	-0.18	0.19	-0.02	
Fractionalization	(0.80)	(0.82)	(0.83)	
Distinct Minority	1.10***	0.89***	1.01***	
	(0.31)	(0.29)	(0.29)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01**	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Urban Population	0.01	0.00	0.01	
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	
Constant	8.48***	7.23***	6.77***	
	(2.67)	(2.38)	(2.54)	
				
α	2.51***	2.50***	2.49***	
N	2,819	2,820	2,659	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 16. Robustness Check Using the Moving Average of Conflict 3 Years Pre & Post 

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.26*	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.82***	-0.83***	-0.77***	
	(0.16)	(0.14)	(0.15)	
Population (logged)	0.21	0.24*	0.24*	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Conflict Intensity (3 year)	1.38***	1.42***	1.25***	
Moving Average	(0.32)	(0.33)	(0.31)	
Political Terror Scale	0.64***	0.68***	0.71***	
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.14)	
Regime	-0.13	-0.17	-0.16	
	(0.11)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Religious 	-0.11	0.18	0.02	
Fractionalization	(0.76)	(0.79)	(0.80)	
Distinct Minority	1.01***	0.86***	0.98***	
	(0.32)	(0.30)	(0.31)	
Minority Size	0.01**	0.01*	0.01**	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	8.42***	7.54***	6.97***	
	(2.42)	(2.12)	(2.26)	
				
α	2.50***	2.49***	2.49***	
N	2,819	2,820	2,659	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

	
Table 17. Robustness Check Using the Moving Average of Conflict 10 Years Pre & Post 

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.01			
	(0.01)			
Minority Religion 		0.04**		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.26**	
			(0.13)	
GDP (logged)	-0.80***	-0.80***	-0.75***	
	(0.16)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Population (logged)	0.19	0.20	0.21	
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.15)	
Conflict Intensity (10 year)	1.54***	1.59***	1.43***	
Moving Average	(0.40)	(0.44)	(0.43)	
Political Terror Scale	0.69***	0.74***	0.75***	
	(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.13)	
Regime	-0.12	-0.17	-0.16	
	(0.12)	(0.11)	(0.11)	
Religious 	0.16	0.39	0.23	
Fractionalization	(0.80)	(0.81)	(0.81)	
Distinct Minority	0.92***	0.79**	0.91***	
	(0.33)	(0.31)	(0.30)	
Minority Size	0.00*	0.00	0.00*	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	8.32***	7.64***	7.12***	
	(2.48)	(2.26)	(2.37)	
				
α	2.50***	2.49***	2.49***	
N	2,819	2,820	2,659	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 18. Robustness Check Using Additional Data (GRI (2012))
	GRI (2007–2010)	
	Coef.	IRR	Z	
GRI 	0.06	1.05	0.59	
	(0.09)			
GDP (logged)	-0.67***	0.51	-2.89	
	(0.23)			
Population (logged)	0.30**	1.35	2.37	
	(0.13)			
Conflict Intensity	2.18***	9.84	3.41	
	(0.64)			
Political Terror Scale	0.54	1.70	1.44	
	(0.37)			
Regime 	-0.27*	0.76	-1.81	
	(0.15)			
Religious Fractionalization	0.68	1.98	0.70	
	(0.97)			
Distinct Minority	-0.88	0.41	-1.58	
	(0.56)			
Minority Size	1.49	4.43	0.94	
	(1.58)			
Constant	5.74**			
	(2.60)			
				
α	2.47***			
 χ²		71.15***		
N	332			

Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

Table 19. Robustness Check Controlling for Outliers

	Model
(1)	Model
(2)	Model
(3)	
Religious Regulations	0.02			
	(0.02)			
Minority Religion 		0.05***		
Discrimination		(0.02)		
Religious Bans			0.30**	
			(0.14)	
GDP (logged)	-0.87***	-0.94***	-0.82***	
	(0.15)	(0.13)	(0.14)	
Population (logged)	0.20	0.25*	0.25*	
	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	
Conflict Intensity	-0.03	0.42	0.18	
	(0.71)	(0.74)	(0.79)	
Political Terror Scale	0.49**	0.59***	0.54**	
	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.23)	
Regime	0.67***	0.68***	0.72***	
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.15)	
Religious 	-0.19*	-0.23**	-0.20*	
Fractionalization	(0.11)	(0.10)	(0.11)	
Distinct Minority	1.23***	1.02***	1.13***	
	(0.32)	(0.29)	(0.30)	
Minority Size	0.00	0.00	0.00	
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	
Constant	8.86***	8.20***	7.14***	
	(2.32)	(1.96)	(2.13)	
				
α	2.49***	2.47***	2.48***	
N	2,747	2,748	2,592	
Standard errors in parentheses. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.